China’s expansive history, spanning over 4,000 years, is marked by a complex interplay of internal unification and external expansion. Contrary to narratives portraying China as perpetually peaceful, its dynasties frequently launched invasions to secure borders, assert dominance, or expand influence across Asia. These campaigns ranged from conquests of neighboring kingdoms to failed amphibious assaults and modern border skirmishes. While China often faced invasions itself—such as the Mongol conquest that birthed the Yuan dynasty—its own aggressive expansions shaped regional geopolitics. This article examines key invasions by Chinese forces, drawing from historical records and scholarly analyses.
Ancient and Early Imperial Invasions (Pre-1000 CE)
China’s early empires prioritized consolidating power over vast territories, often through military incursions into peripheral regions.
- Han Dynasty Conquests (206 BCE–220 CE): Under Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BCE), the Han launched extensive campaigns into northern Korea, establishing the commandery of Lelang in 108 BCE and holding it for over 400 years. This invasion integrated parts of the Korean Peninsula into Han administration, facilitating cultural and economic exchanges but sparking long-term resentments. The Han also subdued the Xiongnu nomads to the north, extending the empire’s reach into Central Asia via the Silk Road.
- Three Kingdoms Period (220–280 CE): Amid fragmentation, the state of Wei invaded Goryeo (Korea) in 244 CE, briefly occupying territories before withdrawing due to logistical challenges. These raids highlighted China’s early maritime and overland ambitions.
- Sui and Tang Dynasties (581–907 CE): The Sui attempted invasions of the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo in 598 and 612 CE, mobilizing massive armies (up to 1.1 million troops) but suffering catastrophic defeats that contributed to the dynasty’s collapse. The Tang, under Emperor Taizong, succeeded in conquering Goguryeo by 668 CE after allying with Silla, only to face rebellions and withdraw. Tang forces also invaded Tibet and Vietnam, briefly controlling Annam (northern Vietnam) and imposing tributary systems.
These early efforts established China as a continental power but often ended in overextension, as seen in the Tang’s disastrous An Lushan Rebellion (755–763 CE), which weakened the empire internally.
Medieval and Yuan Dynasty Expansions (1000–1400 CE)
The Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) was largely defensive, fending off northern invaders like the Liao and Jin. However, the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 CE), founded by Kublai Khan after conquering the Song, marked China’s most aggressive expansionist phase.
- Yuan Invasions of Japan (1274 and 1281 CE): After subjugating Korea as a vassal, Kublai Khan dispatched fleets of up to 140,000 troops and 4,400 ships against Japan. The first invasion landed on Kyushu but was repelled by samurai and typhoons (“kamikaze” divine winds). The second, larger assault suffered similar fates, with storms destroying much of the armada. These failures halted further Mongol expansion eastward.
- Yuan Campaigns in Vietnam and Java: In 1285 and 1287–1288, Yuan forces invaded Đại Việt (Vietnam), aiming to enforce tribute, but were decisively defeated at the Battle of Bạch Đằng River, where Vietnamese admiral Trần Hưng Đạo used stakes and tides to sink the fleet. A 1293 expedition to Java (modern Indonesia) to install a puppet ruler ended in mutiny and withdrawal, underscoring the limits of Yuan naval power.
The Yuan’s conquest of the Song (1235–1279) itself was an invasion of southern China, reducing the population by an estimated 30 million through warfare and famine, though it unified the realm under foreign rule.
Ming and Qing Imperial Campaigns (1400–1900 CE)
The Ming dynasty (1368–1644 CE) focused on maritime exploration under Zheng He but also conducted land invasions.
- Ming Invasion of Vietnam (1406–1427 CE): After the Hồ dynasty usurped the Vietnamese throne, Ming Emperor Yongle invaded with 215,000 troops, occupying Hanoi and renaming the region Jiaozhi Province. Vietnamese resistance, led by Lê Lợi, culminated in the Lam Sơn uprising, forcing Ming withdrawal in 1427 and inspiring enduring anti-Chinese sentiment.
The Qing dynasty (1644–1912 CE), established by Manchu invaders from the north, aggressively expanded China’s borders.
- Qing Invasions of Burma (Myanmar) (1765–1769 CE): Four campaigns targeted Burmese king Alaungpaya’s expansion, with the last in 1769 routing Qing forces at the Battle of Gwebin, leading to a tributary treaty rather than conquest.
- Qing Conquest of Korea (1636 CE): To counter Ming alliances, Qing emperor Hong Taiji invaded Joseon Korea, sacking Seoul and forcing it into vassalage. This “humiliating” event compelled Korea to provide tribute and military support, lasting until the 19th century.
| Dynasty | Target | Year(s) | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Han | Korea (Lelang) | 108 BCE | Long-term occupation (400 years) |
| Sui/Tang | Goguryeo (Korea) | 598–668 CE | Initial failures; eventual Tang success then withdrawal |
| Yuan | Japan | 1274, 1281 | Repelled by defenses and typhoons |
| Yuan | Vietnam | 1285, 1287–1288 | Decisive Vietnamese victory |
| Ming | Vietnam | 1406–1427 | Occupation followed by rebellion and expulsion |
| Qing | Burma | 1765–1769 | Burmese victories; tributary peace |
| Qing | Korea | 1636 | Forced vassalage |
Modern Conflicts Involving Chinese Forces (1900–Present)
The 20th century shifted focus from imperial conquest to ideological and territorial wars, with the People’s Republic of China (PRC, est. 1949) engaging in several interventions.
- Sino-Japanese Wars (1894–1895, 1937–1945): Though primarily defensive against Japanese invasion, Chinese forces under the Republic of China resisted fiercely, contributing to Japan’s defeat in World War II.
- Korean War (1950–1953): PRC troops, dubbed the People’s Volunteer Army, invaded South Korea in October 1950 to support North Korea against UN forces, pushing south before a stalemate at the 38th parallel. This intervention solidified the Korean divide.
- Sino-Indian War (1962): Border disputes led to a Chinese offensive into disputed Himalayan territories, capturing Aksai Chin before a unilateral ceasefire. It remains a flashpoint.
- Sino-Vietnamese War (1979): In response to Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia, China launched a punitive incursion into northern Vietnam, withdrawing after a month of intense fighting that caused tens of thousands of casualties on both sides.
Since 1979, China has avoided full-scale wars, focusing on territorial assertions like the South China Sea disputes, where it has built artificial islands and militarized reefs since the 2010s—actions some label as “salami-slicing” invasions of international waters.
Legacy and Contemporary Relevance
Chinese invasions have left indelible marks: fostering tributary systems that influenced East Asian diplomacy, sparking cultural exchanges (e.g., Buddhism’s spread via Han campaigns), and breeding regional animosities, as in Vietnam and Korea. Historians debate China’s expansionism—some view it as defensive realpolitik against nomadic threats, others as imperial overreach. In 2025, echoes persist in Taiwan Strait tensions and border patrols, underscoring how history informs modern Sino-centric geopolitics. Understanding these campaigns reveals China’s dual identity as both victim and aggressor in Asia’s turbulent past.